The UK's main political parties have “ducked” addressing stark choices over public finances in their manifestos and it will be a "considerable surprise" if taxes are not increased over the next five years, a leading think tank has warned.

The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) accused Labour and the Conservatives of engaging in a "conspiracy of silence" and ignoring "painful choices".

It said the UK has the highest debt level for more than 60 years, taxes are near a record high and spending has swelled - but public services are "visibly struggling".

While the government is paying huge interest on debts and welfare bills have grown, spending on health is likely to rise because of an ageing population while defence funding will have to increase.

Meanwhile, economic growth is subdued.